The causes of biodiversity change are of great scientific interest and central to policy efforts
aimed at meeting biodiversity targets. Changes in species diversity and high rates of …

Abstract By 2030, an additional 1.2 billion people are forecast in urban areas globally. We
review the scientific literature (n= 922 studies) to assess direct and indirect impacts of urban …

Causal effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functions can be estimated using experimental
or observational designs—designs that pose a tradeoff between drawing credible causal …

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are widely used for ocean conservation, yet the relative
impacts of various types of MPAs are poorly understood. We estimated impacts on fish …

Achieving effective, sustainable environmental governance requires a better understanding
of the causes and consequences of the complex patterns of interdependencies connecting …

The environmental sciences have documented large and worrisome changes in earth
systems, from climate change and loss of biodiversity, to changes in hydrological and …

Ecologists often rely on observational data to understand causal relationships. Although
observational causal inference methodologies exist, predictive techniques such as model …

The ability of individuals and groups to identify, assess, and pursue alternative possible
futures is an essential component of their ability to deliberately and collectively respond to …

Previous research has cast doubt on the potential for marine protected areas (MPAs) to
provide refuge and fishery spillover benefits for migratory species as most MPAs are small …

The study of ecosystem services enables the understanding of the services that ecosystems
provide at the landscape level by explaining the relationship between natural capital …