Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) is a secreted cytokine that regulates cell proliferation,
migration, and the differentiation of a plethora of different cell types. Consistent with these …

Transforming growth factor‐β (TGF‐β) is a proinflammatory cytokine known to control a
diverse array of pathological and physiological conditions during normal development and …

The C. elegans insulin/IGF-1 signaling (IIS) pathway connects nutrient levels to metabolism,
growth, development, longevity, and behavior. This fundamental pathway is regulated by …

Transforming growth factor-β utilizes a multitude of intracellular signaling pathways in
addition to Smads to regulate a wide array of cellular functions. These non-canonical, non …

The cytokine transforming growth factor–β (TGF-β) converts naïve T cells into regulatory T
(Treg) cells that prevent autoimmunity. However, in the presence of interleukin-6 (IL-6), TGF …

Intracellular redox imbalance is mainly caused by overproduction of reactive oxygen species
(ROS) or weakness of the natural antioxidant defense system. It is involved in the …

Erk1/Erk2 MAP kinases are key regulators of cell behaviour and their activation is generally
associated with tyrosine kinase signalling. However, TGF‐β stimulation also activates Erk …

The c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) are members of a larger group of serine/threonine
(Ser/Thr) protein kinases from the mitogen-activated protein kinase family. JNKs were …

Cell–cell and cell–extracellular-matrix (cell–ECM) adhesions have much in common,
including shared cytoskeletal linkages, signaling molecules and adaptor proteins that serve …

Cellular signal transduction is a complex process involving protein-protein interactions
(PPIs) that transmit information. For example, signals from the plasma membrane may be …