Opioids mediate their effects via opioid receptors: mu, delta, and kappa. At the neuronal
level, opioid receptors are generally inhibitory, presynaptically reducing neurotransmitter …

The ventral tegmental area (VTA) is well known for regulating reward consumption, learning,
memory, and addiction behaviors through mediating dopamine (DA) release in downstream …

There is increasing evidence in humans and laboratory animals for biologically based sex
differences in every phase of drug addiction: acute reinforcing effects, transition from …

Fentanyl is a powerful painkiller that elicits euphoria and positive reinforcement. Fentanyl
also leads to dependence, defined by the aversive withdrawal syndrome, which fuels …

Opioids are the most potent analgesics in clinical use; however, their powerful rewarding
properties can lead to addiction. The scientific challenge is to retain analgesic potency while …

Among the neurotransmitters involved in addiction, dopamine (DA) is clearly the best known.
The critical role of DA in addiction is supported by converging evidence that has been …

Although both men and women become addicted to drugs of abuse, women transition to
addiction faster, experience greater difficulties remaining abstinent, and relapse more often …

Multiple theories identify neural vulnerability factors that may increase risk for overeating
and weight gain. Early cross-sectional neuroimaging studies were unable to determine …

The dopamine (DA) hypothesis posits the increase of mesolimbic dopamine levels as a
defining commonality of addictive drugs, initially causing reinforcement, eventually leading …

GABA release from interneurons in VTA, projections from the nucleus accumbens (NAc),
and rostromedial tegmental nucleus (RMTg) was selectively activated in rat brain slices. The …