Cognitive function relies on the dynamic cooperation of specialized regions of the brain;
however, the elements of the system responsible for coordinating this interaction remain …

The principal neurons of the arousal and sleep circuits are comprised by glutamate and
GABA neurons, which are distributed within the reticular core of the brain and, through local …

Switches between different behavioral states of the animal are associated with prominent
changes in global brain activity, between sleep and wakefulness or from inattentive to …

The ventral pallidum (VP) plays a critical role in the processing and execution of motivated
behaviors. Yet this brain region is often overlooked in published discussions of the …

Sleep researchers in different disciplines disagree about how fully dreaming can be
explained in terms of brain physiology. Debate has focused on whether REM sleep …

The nucleus basalis is located at the confluence of the limbic and reticular activating
systems. It receives dopaminergic input from the ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra …

Several theories claim that dreaming is a random by-product of REM sleep physiology and
that it does not serve any natural function. Phenomenal dream content, however, is not as …

The “ascending reticular activating system” theory proposed that neurons in the upper
brainstem reticular formation projected to forebrain targets that promoted wakefulness. More …

Serotoninergic innervation of the central nervous system is provided by hindbrain raphe
nuclei (B1–B9). The extent to which each raphe subdivision has distinct topographic …

A complete anatomical analysis of central cholinergic systems is currently possible as a
result of the development of very sensitive immunohistochemical methods. Viewed in their …