Abstract Changes in ocean heat content (OHC) provide a measure of ocean warming, with
impacts on the Earth system. This Review synthesizes estimates of past and future OHC …

We assess evidence relevant to Earth's equilibrium climate sensitivity per doubling of
atmospheric CO2, characterized by an effective sensitivity S. This evidence includes …

This chapter assesses simulations of future global climate change, spanning time horizons
from the near term (2021–2040), mid-term (2041–2060), and long term (2081–2100) out to …

It is unequivocal that the increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4)
and nitrous oxide (N2O) since the pre-industrial period are caused by human activities. The …

Abstract In February 2023, Antarctic sea ice set a record minimum; there have now been
three record-breaking low sea ice summers in seven years. Following the summer minimum …

Equilibrium climate sensitivity, the global surface temperature response to CO doubling, has
been persistently uncertain. Recent consensus places it likely within 1.5–4.5 K. Global …

The ocean is a key component of the Earth system (Chapter 1) as it provides essential life
supporting services (Inniss et al. 2017). For example, it stores heat trapped in the …

This chapter assesses the state of physical, biological and social knowledge concerning the
Arctic and Antarctic ocean and cryosphere, how they are affected by climate change, and …

Observed surface temperature trends over recent decades are characterized by (a)
intensified warming in the Indo‐Pacific Warm Pool and slight cooling in the eastern …

Over the modern satellite era, substantial climatic changes have been observed in the
Antarctic, including atmospheric and oceanic warming, ice sheet thinning and a general …