We assess climate impacts of global warming using ongoing observations and paleoclimate
data. We use Earth's measured energy imbalance, paleoclimate data, and simple …

The forcings that drive long-term climate change are not known with an accuracy sufficient to
define future climate change. Anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHGs), which are well …

This paper describes the GISS‐E2. 1 contribution to the Coupled Model Intercomparison
Project, Phase 6 (CMIP6). This model version differs from the predecessor model (GISS‐E2) …

We present a description of the ModelE2 version of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies
(GISS) General Circulation Model (GCM) and the configurations used in the simulations …

This report is the first complete assessment of the science of climate change since Working
Group I (WGI) of the IPCC produced its second report Climate Change 1995: The Science of …

Improving observations of ocean heat content show that Earth is absorbing more energy
from the Sun than it is radiating to space as heat, even during the recent solar minimum. The …

Paleoclimate data show that climate sensitivity is~ 3 deg-C for doubled CO2, including only
fast feedback processes. Equilibrium sensitivity, including slower surface albedo feedbacks …

We use a global climate model to compare the effectiveness of many climate forcing agents
for producing climate change. We find a substantial range in the “efficacy” of different …

A common view is that the current global warming rate will continue or accelerate. But we
argue that rapid warming in recent decades has been driven mainly by non-CO2 …

We quantify the interannual-to-decadal variability of the heat content (mean temperature) of
the world ocean from the surface through 3000-meter depth for the period 1948 to 1998. The …