We review the concepts and research associated with measuring fear and its consequences
for foraging. When foraging, animals should and do demand hazardous duty pay. They …

Birds are constantly responding to stimuli from their environment. When these stimuli are
perceived as threatening, stress responses are initiated, with activation of the hypothalamo …

“Predation risk” and “fear” are concepts well established in animal behavior literature. We
expand these concepts to develop the model of the “landscape of fear”. The landscape of …

Inducible defences against predators evolve because they reduce the rate of direct
predation, but this benefit is offset by the cost (if any) of defence. If antipredator responses …

We present a framework to explain how prey stress responses to predation can resolve
context dependency in ecosystem properties and functions such as food chain length …

Stress has profound effects on vertebrate immunity, but most studies have considered stress–
immune interactions in terms of wild animals enduring demanding, but predictable activities …

Fluctuations in abiotic and biotic conditions exist in almost all habitats (Dunlap, Loros, &
DeCoursey, 2004; Stevenson et al., 2015). Some fluctuations like the alternation between …

Animals can congregate in groups for many reasons, from reproductive assurance to
improved foraging or predation efficiency, to avoiding themselves becoming the target of …

Measuring stress in animals is important in many ecological, zoological and veterinary
research settings. A common method is to measure plasma levels of glucocorticoid …

The stress systems are powerful mediators between the organism's systemic dynamic
equilibrium and changes in its environment beyond the level of anticipated fluctuations. Over …