When cancer metastasizes to bone, considerable pain and deregulated bone remodelling
occurs, greatly diminishing the possibility of cure. Metastasizing tumour cells mobilize and …

The bone is the third most common site of metastasis for a wide range of solid tumors
including lung, breast, prostate, colorectal, thyroid, gynecologic, and melanoma, with 70% of …

Abstract TGF-β 1–3 are unique multi-functional growth factors that are only expressed in
mammals, and mainly secreted and stored as a latent complex in the extracellular matrix …

Hypoxia is an integral component of the tumor microenvironment. Either as chronic or
cycling hypoxia, it exerts a similar effect on cancer processes by activating hypoxia-inducible …

Intratumoral hypoxia is a common finding in breast cancer and is associated with a
significantly increased risk of metastasis and patient mortality. Hypoxia-inducible factors …

Breast cancer is one of the most common malignancy among women worldwide. Metastasis
is mainly responsible for treatment failure and is the cause of most breast cancer deaths …

Cytokines are highly inducible, secretory proteins that mediate intercellular communication
in the immune system. They are grouped into several protein families that are referred to as …

Metastasis accounts for 90% of breast cancer mortality. Despite the significant progress
made over the past decade in cancer medicine our understanding of metastasis remains …

Hypoxia is a common condition found in a wide range of solid tumors and is often
associated with poor prognosis. Hypoxia increases tumor glycolysis, angiogenesis, and …

Extracellular vesicles such as exosomes and microvesicles (MVs) are shed by cancer cells,
are detected in the plasma of cancer patients, and promote cancer progression, but the …