This narrative state-of-the-art review paper describes the progress in the understanding and
treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Over the last four decades, the scientific …

Exposure to stress during critical periods in development can have severe long-term
consequences, increasing overall risk on psychopathology. One of the key stress response …

In concert with neuropeptides and transmitters, the end products of the hypothalamus-
pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, the glucocorticoid hormones cortisol and corticosterone …

Allostasis, or stability through change, has most often been linked with challenges to
homeostasis, in which repeated challenges or stressors produce sufficient allostatic load to …

The central amygdala (CeA) plays a central role in physiologic and behavioral responses to
fearful stimuli, stressful stimuli, and drug-related stimuli. The CeA receives dense inputs from …

Questions of how altered functioning of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis
contribute to the development and maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) …

Environmental stimuli that signal real or potential threats to homeostasis lead to
glucocorticoid secretion by the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical (HPA) axis …

The mammalian stress response is an integrated physiological and psychological reaction
to real or perceived adversity. Glucocorticoids are an important component of this response …

Several stress-associated neuropsychiatric disorders, notably posttraumatic stress disorder
and chronic pain and fatigue syndromes, paradoxically exhibit somewhat low plasma levels …

Glucocorticoids (corticosterone in birds and rodents and cortisol in all other mammals) are
glucoregulatory hormones that are synthesized in response to a range of stimuli including …