The brain includes multiple types of interconnected excitatory and inhibitory neurons that
together allow us to move, think, feel, and interact with the environment. Inhibitory …

Deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii), a wildtype species native to North America,
have been investigated for their spontaneous compulsive-like behaviour. The repetitive and …

Behavioural needs are highly motivated actions critical to a species survival and
reproduction. Prolonged restriction of these behaviours can lead to stereotypic behaviours …

We demonstrate how two linguistic phenomena, figurative language (implicating cross-
modality) and derogatory language (implicating aggression), both demand a precise degree …

Stereotypic behaviors are commonly observed in domestic equids as they are in a range of
captive nondomesticated species. Estimates suggest that 19.5%-32.5% of horses perform a …

The present review assesses the potential neural impact of impoverished, captive
environments on large-brained mammals, with a focus on elephants and cetaceans. These …

Stabled horses often experience negative emotions due to the inappropriate living
conditions imposed by humans. However, identifying what emotions horses experience and …

Risk prevention is often counterproductive to stallions' living conditions when assessed
under welfare aspects. In the wild, stallions live in social groups, but under domestic …

Tic disorders affect~ 5% of the population and are frequently comorbid with obsessive-
compulsive disorder, autism, and attention deficit disorder. Histamine dysregulation has …

The medical psychostimulant methylphenidate (MP) is used to treat attention-deficit
hyperactivity disorder and recreationally as a “cognitive enhancer”. MP is a dopamine …