Stress is a well‐known risk factor in the development of addiction and in addiction relapse
vulnerability. A series of population‐based and epidemiological studies have identified …

The amygdala integrates and processes incoming information pertinent to reward and to
emotions such as fear and anxiety that promote survival by warning of potential danger …

A number of studies have assessed the effects of psychoactive drugs on stress biology, the
neuroadaptations resulting from chronic drug use on stress biology, and their effects on …

While the toxicity of the main constituents of electronic cigarette (ECIG) liquids, nicotine,
propylene glycol (PG), and vegetable glycerin (VG), has been assessed individually in …

Tobacco smoking is an extremely addictive and harmful form of nicotine (NIC) consumption,
but unfortunately also the most prevalent. Although disproportionately high frequencies of …

Tobacco is a highly addictive drug and is one of the most widely abused drugs in the world.
The first part of this review explores the role of stressors and stress-associated psychiatric …

Addictive drugs (opiates, ethanol, cannabinoids (CBs), nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines)
induce activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, with the subsequent …

Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) can regulate the activity of many
neurotransmitter pathways throughout the central nervous system and are considered to be …

In order to continue the decline of smoking prevalence, it is imperative to identify factors that
contribute to the development of nicotine and tobacco addiction, such as adolescent …

Tobacco products are widely abused in humans, and it is assumed that nicotine is the key
substrate in these products that produces addiction. Based on this assumption, several pre …