Spatial skills represent an important part of our cognitive processes and have been widely
studied in the last decades. The term “spatial skills” includes several abilities, some of them …

Background: Military pilots show advanced visuospatial skills. Previous studies demonstrate
that they are better at mentally rotating a target, taking different perspectives, estimating …

The role of emotional landmarks in navigation has been scarcely studied. Previous findings
showed that valence and arousal of landmarks increase landmark's salience and improve …

Individual differences exist among learners. Among various individual differences, cognitive
styles can strongly predict learners' learning behavior. Therefore, cognitive styles are …

In the last decade, several cases affected by Developmental Topographical Disorientation
(DTD) have been described. DTD consists of a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting the …

People orient themselves in the environment using three different, hierarchically organized,
spatial cognitive styles: landmark, route, and survey. Landmark style is based on a …

Field independence (FI) is the extent to which a person perceives part of a field as discrete
from the surrounding field rather than embedded in the field. Several studies proposed that it …

Travel planning (TP) is a kind of planning devoted to spatial orientation that is
distinguishable from general planning (GP). It is crucial to reach a destination, since it allows …

Reconstructing geometrical concepts requires a spatial thinking process, so the spatial
thinking process will be correct and complete. The phenomena of cognitive style differences …

Background: In the field of spatial cognition, the study of individual differences represents a
typical research topic. Gender and age have been prominently investigated. A promising …