For the last two decades, pathogenic concepts in Parkinson disease (PD) have revolved
around the toxicity and spread of α-synuclein. Thus, α-synuclein would follow caudo-rostral …

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a powerful tool to probe in vivo brain circuits, as it
allows to assess several cortical properties such as excitability, plasticity and connectivity in …

Cardinal motor features of Parkinson's disease (PD) include bradykinesia, rest tremor, and
rigidity, which appear in the early stages of the disease and largely depend on …

Bradykinesia is one of the cardinal motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease and other
parkinsonisms. The various clinical aspects related to bradykinesia and the …

The motor features of Parkinson's disease (PD) are well known to manifest only when striatal
dopaminergic deficit reaches 60–70%. Thus, PD has a long pre-symptomatic and pre-motor …

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non‐invasive technique that is increasingly
used to study the human brain. One of the principal outcome measures is the motor‐evoked …

In Parkinson's disease, the progressive neurodegeneration of nigrostriatal dopaminergic
neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) is associated with classic motor …

The final goal of motor learning, a complex process that includes both implicit and explicit (or
declarative) components, is the optimization and automatization of motor skills. Motor …

This review is part of the series on the clinical neurophysiology of movement disorders. It
focuses on Parkinson's disease and parkinsonism. The topics covered include the …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a movement disorder characterized by the early loss of
nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathways producing significant network changes impacting motor …