Fear motivates different types of defensive behaviors. These behaviors are, however, not
mere byproducts of fear. In this review, we highlight a bi-directional relationship between …

Pain is mostly thought of as a problem—as debilitating or harmful. Despite its
unpleasantness, however, under some conditions pain can be associated with positive …

The mind is a powerful anticipatory device. It frequently makes predictions about the future,
telling us not only how the world might or will be, but also how it should be-or better-how we …

People who engage in nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) endure physical pain for longer periods
than do noninjuring individuals. Pain endurance is also predicted by the presence of highly …

Although research on the reasons for engaging in nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) has
increased dramatically in the last few years, there are still many aspects of this pernicious …

Relief fits the definition of a reward. Unlike other reward types the pleasantness of relief
depends on the violation of a negative expectation, yet this has not been investigated using …

Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is the deliberate destruction of one's own body tissue in the
absence of suicidal intent (eg, cutting or burning the skin). Previous studies have found that …

Although pain itself induces negative affect, the removal (or offset) of pain induces a
powerful state of relief. Despite being implicated in a wide range of psychological and …

Memories relating to a painful, negative event are adaptive and can be stored for a lifetime
to support preemptive avoidance, escape, or attack behavior. However, under unfavorable …

The majority of people who engage in nonsuicidal self-injury (eg, cutting) report that affect
regulation is their primary motivation for these painful behaviors. Unfortunately, little is …