While the importance of mutualisms across the tree of life is recognized, it is not understood
why some organisms evolve high levels of dependence on mutualistic partnerships, while …

Linking interspecific interactions (eg, mutualism, competition, predation, parasitism) to
macroevolution (evolutionary change on deep timescales) is a key goal in biology. The role …

Summary The Andean mountains of South America are the most species‐rich biodiversity
hotspot worldwide with c. 15% of the world's plant species, in only 1% of the world's land …

Mutualisms–cooperative interactions among different species–are known to influence global
biodiversity. Nevertheless, theoretical and empirical work has led to divergent hypotheses …

The popular dual definition of lichen symbiosis is under question with recent findings of
additional microbial partners living within the lichen body. Here we compare the distribution …

Cooperative interactions among species, termed mutualisms, have played a crucial role in
the evolution of life on Earth. However, despite key potential benefits to partners, there are …

For a mutualism to remain evolutionarily stable, theory predicts that mutualists should limit
their associations to high‐quality partners. However, most mutualists either simultaneously …

Definition Lichens have long been considered as composite organisms composed of algae
and/or cyanobacteria hosted by a fungus in a mutualistic relationship. Other organisms have …

Evolutionary biologists typically envision a trait's genetic basis and fitness effects occurring
within a single species. However, traits can be determined by and have fitness …

There is now good evidence that many mutualisms evolved from antagonism; why or how,
however, remains unclear. We advance the Co-Opted Antagonist (COA) Hypothesis as a …