Organisms of all domains of life use photoreceptor proteins to sense and respond to light.
The light-sensitivity of photoreceptor proteins arises from bound chromophores such as …

Microbial rhodopsins are a family of photoactive retinylidene proteins widespread
throughout the microbial world. They are notable for their diversity of function, using …

Channelrhodopsins are used widely for optical control of neurons, in which they generate
photoinduced proton, sodium or chloride influx. Potassium (K+) is central to neuron …

Channelrhodopsins (ChRs) are directly light-gated ion channels that function as sensory
photoreceptors in flagellated green algae, allowing these algae to identify optimal light …

Bioelectronic materials interface biomolecules, cells, organs, or organisms with electronic
devices, and they represent an active and growing field of materials research. Protein and …

The new and vibrant field of optogenetics was founded by the seminal discovery of
channelrhodopsin, the first light-gated cation channel. Despite the numerous applications …

Rhodopsins convert light into signals and energy in animals and microbes. Heliorhodopsins
(HeRs), a recently discovered new rhodopsin family, are widely present in archaea, bacteria …

Protein-bound internal water molecules are essential features of the structure and function of
microbial rhodopsins. Besides structural stabilization, they act as proton conductors and …

Although channelrhodopsin (ChR) is a widely applied light-activated ion channel, important
properties such as light adaptation, photocurrent inactivation, and alteration of the ion …

In the last twenty years, our understanding of the rules and mechanisms for the outward light-
driven proton transport (and underlying proton transfers) by microbial rhodopsins has been …