Abstract Most El Niño events occur sporadically and peak in a single winter,–, whereas La
Niña tends to develop after an El Niño and last for two years or longer,,–. Relative to single …

Climate variability and change is the main concern for scientific communities since the past
decades. This chapter gives an overview about the basics of climate change. It firstly …

Future changes in the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) are uncertain, both because
future projections differ between climate models and because the large internal variability of …

Linked climate and crop simulation models are widely used to assess the impact of climate
change on agriculture. However, it is unclear how ensemble configurations (model …

The growing demand for skillful near-term climate prediction encourages an improved
prediction of low-frequency sea surface temperature (SST) variabilities such as the El Niño …

It has been proven that marine heatwaves (MHWs) have increased in frequency, duration,
and intensity over the past few decades, and this trend will accelerate further under …

The global mean surface temperature (GMST) record exhibits both interannual to
multidecadal variability and a long‐term warming trend due to external climate forcing. To …

A notable shift in the El Niño‐Southern Oscillation (ENSO) has been observed in the early
21st century, characterized by an increased prevalence of Central Pacific (CP) events and …

In spite of massive efforts directed to development of climate models over recent decades,
accurate climate simulations and prediction remain a grand challenge. Large sea surface …

Food security and agricultural-based livelihoods of smallholder farmers are under threat due
to climate change and political conflicts. However, quality firm data is needed to assess the …