BACKGROUND Although thermal expansion of seawater and melting of mountain glaciers
have dominated global mean sea level (GMSL) rise over the last century, mass loss from the …

Over the past 3.5 million years, there have been several intervals when climate conditions
were warmer than during the pre-industrial Holocene. Although past intervals of warming …

Marine ice sheets are highly sensitive to submarine melting in their grounding zones, where
they transition between grounded and floating ice. Recently published studies of the …

The term “tip** point” commonly refers to a critical threshold at which a tiny perturbation
can qualitatively alter the state or development of a system. Here we introduce the term …

A daptation refers to adjustments in ecological, social, or economic systems in response to
actual or expected climatic stimuli and their effects or impacts. It refers to changes in …

Interglacials, including the present (Holocene) period, are warm, low land ice extent (high
sea level), end‐members of glacial cycles. Based on a sea level definition, we identify …

• The sustained rate of increase over the past century in the combined radiative forcing from
the three well-mixed greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous …

This chapter assesses the current state of knowledge of the rate of change of global-
averaged and regional sea-level in relation to climate change. We focus on the 20th and …

We review the major subglacial till forming processes as presently understood by glacial
researchers and define the parameters within which tills are produced and reconcile them …

Global mean sea-level change has increased from a few centimetres per century over recent
millennia to a few tens of centimetres per century in recent decades. This tenfold increase in …