▪ Abstract Opioid receptors belong to the large superfamily of seven transmembrane-
spanning (7TM) G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). As a class, GPCRs are of …

Opioids mediate their effects via opioid receptors: mu, delta, and kappa. At the neuronal
level, opioid receptors are generally inhibitory, presynaptically reducing neurotransmitter …

Survival in threatening situations depends on the selection and rapid execution of an
appropriate active or passive defensive response, yet the underlying brain circuitry is not …

Plants have long been recognized for their therapeutic properties. For centuries, indigenous
cultures around the world have used traditional herbal medicine to treat a myriad of …

Although opioids are highly effective for the treatment of pain, they are also known to be
intensely addictive. There has been a massive research investment in the development of …

Abstract µ-Opioid peptide receptor (MOPR) stimulation alters respiration, analgesia and
reward behaviour, and can induce substance abuse and overdose,–. Despite its evident …

Stress is most often associated with aversive states. It rapidly induces the release of
hormones and neuropeptides including dynorphin, which activates kappa opioid receptors …

Highlights•Descending pathways play a critical role in the central modulation of pain.•A
particular descending PAG–RVM pathway mediates the phenomenon of stress-induced …

A dramatic increase in the use and dependence of prescription opioids has occurred within
the last 10 years. The consequences of long-term prescription opioid use and dependence …

Portable infrared pupillometers provide an objective measure of pupil size and pupillary
reflexes, which for most clinicians was previously only a visual impression. But despite the …