The immune system is a very diverse system of the host that evolved during evolution to
cope with various pathogens present in the vicinity of environmental surroundings inhabited …

The innate immune system is the first line of defense against pathogens, which is initiated by
the recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and endogenous …

During virus infection, host toll-like receptors (TLRs) can recognize different pathogen-
associated molecular patterns and trigger the innate immune response. TLR7/8 can identify …

The acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a common cause of respiratory failure in
critically ill patients and is defined by the acute onset of noncardiogenic pulmonary oedema …

The identification of the Drosophila melanogaster Toll pathway cascade and the subsequent
characterization of TLRs have reshaped our understanding of the immune system. Ever …

Multicellular organisms live, by and large, harmoniously with microbes. The cornea of the
eye of an animal is almost always free of signs of infection. The insect flourishes without …

Insects possess an immune system that protects them from attacks by various pathogenic
microorganisms that would otherwise threaten their survival. Immune mechanisms may deal …

The outbreak of diseases ordinarily results from the disruption of the balance and harmony
between hosts and pathogens. Devoid of adaptive immunity, shrimp rely largely on the …

The membrane receptor Toll and the related Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are best known for
their universal function in innate immunity. However, Toll/TLRs were initially discovered in a …

The mammalian Toll‐like receptor (TLR) family consists of 13 members, and recognizes
specific patterns of microbial components, called pathogen‐associated molecular patterns …