Wild aquatic bird populations have long been considered the natural reservoir for influenza
A viruses with virus transmission from these birds seeding other avian and mammalian …

Viral phylodynamics is defined as the study of how epidemiological, immunological, and
evolutionary processes act and potentially interact to shape viral phylogenies. Since the …

The antigenic evolution of influenza A (H3N2) virus was quantified and visualized from its
introduction into humans in 1968 to 2003. Although there was remarkable correspondence …

A key priority for infectious disease research is to clarify how pathogen genetic variation,
modulated by host immunity, transmission bottlenecks, and epidemic dynamics, determines …

Recent developments in complete-genome sequencing, antigenic map** and
epidemiological modelling are greatly improving our knowledge of the evolution of human …

Although influenza viruses can infect a wide variety of birds and mammals, the natural host
of the virus is wild waterfowl, shorebirds, and gulls. When other species of animals, including …

We retrospectively demonstrated that an outbreak of severe respiratory disease in a pack of
English foxhounds in the United Kingdom in September 2002 was caused by an equine …

Equine influenza virus (EIV) surveillance is important in the management of equine
influenza. It provides data on circulating and newly emerging strains for vaccine strain …

Vaccines and vaccination have emerged during the past two decades as essential tools in
avian influenza (AI) control for poultry, because they increase resistance to infection, prevent …

Equine influenza virus (EIV) is a constantly evolving viral pathogen that is responsible for
yearly outbreaks of respiratory disease in horses termed equine influenza (EI). There is …