Innate immunity is the first defense system against invading pathogens. Toll-like receptors
(TLRs) are well-defined pattern recognition receptors responsible for pathogen recognition …

Macrophages are present in most human tissues and have very diverse functions. Activated
macrophages are usually divided into two phenotypes, M1 macrophages and M2 …

Macrophage activation is associated with profound transcriptional reprogramming. Although
much progress has been made in the understanding of macrophage activation, polarization …

Infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes> 1.5 million deaths worldwide annually.
Innate immune cells are the first to encounter M. tuberculosis, and their response dictates …

Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite of global importance. In the laboratory setting, T.
gondii is frequently used as a model pathogen to study mechanisms of T helper 1 (TH1) cell …

Tuberculosis is primarily a disease of the lung, and dissemination of the disease depends
on productive infection of this critical organ. Upon aerosol infection with Mycobacterium …

Tuberculosis (TB), caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), is a major health problem,
with 10 million new cases diagnosed each year. Innate immunity plays an important role in …

The mechanisms by which the recognition of Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands leads to host
immunity remain poorly defined. It is now thought that to induce an effective immune …

▪ Abstract Only 5 to 10% of immunocompetent humans are susceptible to tuberculosis, and
over 85% of them develop the disease exclusively in the lungs. Human immunodeficiency …

Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling in macrophages is required for antipathogen responses,
including the biosynthesis of nitric oxide from arginine, and is essential for immunity to …