Opioids are mainly used to treat both acute and chronic pain. Several opioids are
metabolized to some extent by CYP2D6 (codeine, tramadol, hydrocodone, oxycodone, and …

Tramadol is a unique analgesic medication, available in variety of formulations, with both
monoaminergic reuptake inhibitory and opioid receptor agonist activity increasingly …

Codeine is bioactivated to morphine, a strong opioid agonist, by the hepatic cytochrome
P450 2D6 (CYP2D6); hence, the efficacy and safety of codeine are governed by CYP2D6 …

Part I of this article discussed the potential functional importance of genetic mutations and
alleles of the human cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) gene. The impact of CYP2D6 …

The polymorphic nature of the cytochrome P450 (CYP) genes affects individual drug
response and adverse reactions to a great extent. This variation includes copy number …

Codeine is bioactivated to morphine, a strong opioid agonist, by the hepatic cytochrome
P450 2D6 (CYP2D6); hence, the efficacy and safety of codeine as an analgesic are …

Opioid analgesics are the standards of care for the treatment of moderate to severe
nociceptive pain, particularly in the setting of cancer and surgery. Their analgesic properties …

Purpose CYP2D6 bioactivates codeine and tramadol, with intermediate and poor
metabolizers (IMs and PMs) expected to have impaired analgesia. This pragmatic proof-of …

OBJECTIVE: After prolonged opioid exposure, children develop opioid-induced
hyperalgesia, tolerance, and withdrawal. Strategies for prevention and management should …

Opioids are the prototypical analgesics, antitussives, and antidiarrheal drug class. The
opioid receptor system or opioid effects have been identified in numerous animal species …