Population ageing and various diseases have increased the demand for bone grafts in
recent decades. Bone tissue engineering (BTE) using a three-dimensional (3D) scaffold …

In severe tissue destruction, not only large number of cells are destroyed, but also the
extracellular matrix (ECM). The ECM is a three-dimensional (3D) network that provides …

Three-dimensional (3D) printing, as one of the most popular recent additive manufacturing
processes, has shown strong potential for the fabrication of biostructures in the field of tissue …

3D bioprinting is an additive manufacturing technique that recapitulates the native
architecture of tissues. This is accomplished through the precise deposition of cell …

Clinically, the treatment of bone defects remains a significant challenge, as it requires
autogenous bone grafts or bone graft substitutes. However, the existing biomaterials often …

Shape memory polymers (SMPs) and their composites have become the prominent choice
of the various industries owing to the unique inherent characteristics which can be …

One of the well-known ways to produce porous scaffolds or special three-dimensional (3D)
micro-nanostructures is using the 3D printing technique. This technique requires a suitable …

The tissue engineering of hard organs and tissues containing cartilage, teeth, and bones is
a widely used and rapidly progressing field. One of the main features of hard organs and …

Effective clinical methods for large bone defects are not yet available on account of the
complex intrinsic structure and mechanical characteristics of natural bone tissue. It remains …

The repair of segmental bone defects caused by traumatic injury or pathological diseases
remains a substantial challenge in clinic. Poly-l-lactic acid (PLLA) is recognized as one …