Rewards are crucial objects that induce learning, approach behavior, choices, and
emotions. Whereas emotions are difficult to investigate in animals, the learning function is …

Midbrain dopamine neurons are well known for their strong responses to rewards and their
critical role in positive motivation. It has become increasingly clear, however, that dopamine …

Addictive drugs have in common that they target the mesocorticolimbic dopamine (DA)
system. This system originates in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and projects mainly to the …

Many of the brain's reward systems converge on the nucleus accumbens, a region richly
innervated by excitatory, inhibitory, and modulatory afferents representing the circuitry …

There is increasing interest among functional neurosurgeons in the potential for novel
therapies to impact upon diseases beyond movement disorders and pain. A target of …

Recent work has advanced our knowledge of phasic dopamine reward prediction error
signals. The error signal is bidirectional, reflects well the higher order prediction error …

Midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons are not homogeneous but differ in their molecular
properties and responses to external stimuli. We examined whether the modulation of …

Ketamine is used clinically as an anaesthetic and a fast-acting antidepressant, and
recreationally for its dissociative properties, raising concerns of addiction as a possible side …

Beyond their well-established role as triggers for LTP and LTD of fast synaptic transmission
mediated by AMPA receptors, an expanding body of evidence indicates that NMDA …

Anxiety is an unpleasant physiological state in which an overreaction to a situation occurs. It
has been suggested that different brain regions are involved in the modulation and …