Biological sex differences refer to differences between males and females caused by the sex
chromosome complement (that is, XY or XX), reproductive tissues (that is, the presence of …

The incidence of autoimmune diseases has been steadily rising. Concomitantly, the
incidence of most infectious diseases has declined. This observation gave rise to the …

Multiple sclerosis is a complex autoimmune disease, and several therapies for multiple
sclerosis have been developed and widely used. However, existing medications for multiple …

The preclinical phase of autoimmune disorders is characterized by an initial asymptomatic
phase of varying length followed by nonspecific signs and symptoms. A variety of …

Autoimmune diabetes arises spontaneously in Non-Obese Diabetic (NOD) mice, and the
pathophysiology of this disease shares many similarities with human type 1 diabetes. Since …

Autoimmune diseases (ADs) represent a heterogeneous group of disorders that affect
specific target organs or multiple organ systems. These conditions share common …

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory and neurodegenerative disease of the
central nervous system characterized by broad inter-and intraindividual heterogeneity and …

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune inflammatory illness that affects the central
nervous system (CNS) when the body's immune system attacks its tissue. It is characterized …

Background: The prevalence of elderly patients with MS is increasing, in conjunction with
the ageing general population. This review will examine the principal characteristics of …

Vitamin D is one of the main groups of sterols; playing an important role in phospho-calcic
metabolism. The conversion of 7-dehydrocholesterol to pre-vitamin D3 in the skin, through …