Adjuvants are indispensable components of vaccines. Despite being widely used in
vaccines, their action mechanisms are not yet clear. With a greater understanding of the …

T cells are crucial for immune functions to maintain health and prevent disease. T cell
development occurs in a stepwise process in the thymus and mainly generates CD4+ and …

Cortisol, a critical glucocorticoid hormone produced by the adrenal glands, plays a pivotal
role in various physiological processes. Its release is finely orchestrated by the …

Cytokines mediate cell–cell communication in the immune system and represent important
therapeutic targets,–. A myriad of studies have highlighted their central role in immune …

The gut microbiota, including bacteria, archaea, fungi, viruses and phages, inhabits the
gastrointestinal tract. This commensal microbiota can contribute to the regulation of host …

Classically, superoxide anion O2•− and reactive oxygen species ROS play a dual role. At
the physiological balance level, they are a by-product of O2 reduction, necessary for cell …

RNA modifications have become hot topics recently. By influencing RNA processes,
including generation, transportation, function, and metabolization, they act as critical …

Abstract The interleukin-17 (IL-17) family comprises six members (IL-17A–17F), and
recently, all of its related receptors have been discovered. IL-17 was first discovered …

Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) is a key cytokine regulating the development,
activation, proliferation, differentiation, and death of T cells. In CD4+ T cells, TGF-β maintains …

Immune tolerance deletes or suppresses autoreactive lymphocytes and is established at
multiple levels during the development, activation and effector phases of T and B cells …