Abstract Changes in ocean heat content (OHC) provide a measure of ocean warming, with
impacts on the Earth system. This Review synthesizes estimates of past and future OHC …

We assess evidence relevant to Earth's equilibrium climate sensitivity per doubling of
atmospheric CO2, characterized by an effective sensitivity S. This evidence includes …

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessments are the trusted source of
scientific evidence for climate negotiations taking place under the United Nations …

Abstract Most El Niño events occur sporadically and peak in a single winter,–, whereas La
Niña tends to develop after an El Niño and last for two years or longer,,–. Relative to single …

2 Chapter 2 assesses observed large-scale changes in climate system drivers, key climate
indicators and 3 principal modes of variability. Chapter 3 considers model performance and …

The ocean absorbs> 90% of anthropogenic heat in the Earth system, moderating global
atmospheric warming. However, it remains unclear how this heat uptake is distributed by …

The ocean is warming, losing oxygen and being acidified, primarily as a result of
anthropogenic carbon emissions. With ocean warming, acidification and deoxygenation …

The global physical and biogeochemical environment has been substantially altered in
response to increased atmospheric greenhouse gases from human activities. In 2023, the …

Global ocean physical and chemical trends are reviewed and updated using seven key
ocean climate change indicators:(i) Sea Surface Temperature,(ii) Ocean Heat Content,(iii) …

The ocean is a key component of the Earth system (Chapter 1) as it provides essential life
supporting services (Inniss et al. 2017). For example, it stores heat trapped in the …