The skeletal system is the basis of the vertebral body composition, which affords stabilization
sites for muscle attachment, protects vital organs, stores mineral ions, supplies places to the …

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are fundamental for macrophages to eliminate invasive
microorganisms. However, as observed in nonphagocytic cells, ROS play essential roles in …

The uptake of calcium into and extrusion of calcium from the mitochondrial matrix is a
fundamental biological process that has critical effects on cellular metabolism, signaling …

With the nucleus as an exception, mitochondria are the only animal cell organelles
containing their own genetic information, called mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). During oocyte …

The mechanism that initiates autophagosome formation on the ER in multicellular organisms
is elusive. Here, we showed that autophagy stimuli trigger Ca 2+ transients on the outer …

The majority of tumor-infiltrating T cells exhibit a terminally exhausted phenotype, marked by
a loss of self-renewal capacity. How repetitive antigenic stimulation impairs T cell self …

Calcium (Ca2+) functions as a second messenger that is critical in regulating fundamental
physiological functions such as cell growth/development, cell survival, neuronal …

The spliced form of X-box binding protein 1 (XBP1s) is an active transcription factor that
plays a vital role in the unfolded protein response (UPR). Under endoplasmic reticulum (ER) …

The human brain consumes 20% of the total basal oxygen (O 2) budget to support ATP
intensive neuronal activity. Without sufficient O 2 to support ATP demands, neuronal activity …

BACKGROUND The defining feature of eukaryotic cells is the presence of membrane-bound
organelles of diverse kinds, each with specialized functions. Most organelles have multiple …