Tip** elements are components of the Earth system which may respond nonlinearly to
anthropogenic climate change by transitioning toward substantially different long‐term …

A global compilation of glacier advances and retreats for the past two millennia grouped by
17 regions (excluding Antarctica) highlights the nature of glacier fluctuations during the late …

2 Chapter 2 assesses observed large-scale changes in climate system drivers, key climate
indicators and 3 principal modes of variability. Chapter 3 considers model performance and …

This chapter assesses the state of physical, biological and social knowledge concerning the
Arctic and Antarctic ocean and cryosphere, how they are affected by climate change, and …

The AR5 concluded that human influence on the climate system is clear, evident from
increasing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, positive radiative forcing …

Ice loss from the Greenland ice sheet is one of the largest sources of contemporary sea-level
rise (SLR). While process-based models place timescales on Greenland's deglaciation, their …

The rate of global-mean sea-level rise since 1900 has varied over time, but the contributing
factors are still poorly understood. Previous assessments found that the summed …

We reconstruct the mass balance of the Greenland Ice Sheet using a comprehensive survey
of thickness, surface elevation, velocity, and surface mass balance (SMB) of 260 glaciers …

Previous studies reconstructed twentieth-century global mean sea level (GMSL) from sparse
tide-gauge records to understand whether the recent high rates obtained from satellite …

The melting of glaciers and ice caps accounts for about one-third of current sea-level rise,–,
exceeding the mass loss from the more voluminous Greenland or Antarctic Ice Sheets,. The …