Land plants are exposed to not only biotic stresses such as pathogen infection and
herbivore wounding, but abiotic stresses such as cold, heat, drought, and salt. Elaborate …

Abiotic stresses, such as low or high temperature, deficient or excessive water, high salinity,
heavy metals, and ultraviolet radiation, are hostile to plant growth and development, leading …

Calculations of the impact of friction and wear on energy consumption, economic
expenditure, and CO 2 emissions are presented on a global scale. This impact study covers …

Outer protective barriers of animals use a variety of bio‐polymers, based on either proteins
(eg collagens), or modified sugars (eg chitin). Plants, however, have come up with a …

Cutin, a polyester composed mostly of oxygenated fatty acids, serves as the framework of
the plant cuticle. The same types of cutin monomers occur across most plant lineages …

Plant stature and development are governed by cell proliferation and directed cell growth.
These parameters are determined largely by cell wall characteristics. Cellulose microfibrils …

Acyl lipids in Arabidopsis and all other plants have a myriad of diverse functions. These
include providing the core diffusion barrier of the membranes that separates cells and …

The aerial parts of plants are covered with a cuticle, a hydrophobic layer consisting of cutin
polyester and cuticular waxes that protects them from various environmental stresses …

The cuticle provides a physical barrier against water loss and protects against irradiation,
xenobiotics, and pathogens. Components of the cuticle are perceived by invading fungi and …

Suberin is a lipophilic macromolecule found in specialized plant cell walls, wherever
insulation or protection toward the surroundings is needed. Suberized cells form the …