This review summarizes the brain mechanisms controlling sleep and wakefulness.
Wakefulness promoting systems cause low-voltage, fast activity in the …

The “basal ganglia” refers to a group of subcortical nuclei responsible primarily for motor
control, as well as other roles such as motor learning, executive functions and behaviors …

Abstract The amphetamine derivative (±)-3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA,
ecstasy) is a popular recreational drug among young people, particularly those involved in …

Fear is an adaptive component of the acute “stress” response to potentially-dangerous
(external and internal) stimuli which threaten to perturb homeostasis. However, when …

Extracellular adenosine is a key immunosuppressive metabolite that restricts activation of
cytotoxic lymphocytes and impairs antitumor immune responses. Here, we show that …

A. Cellular and Subcellular Localization B. Pharmacological Tools to Study Adenosine
Receptors C. Signaling Via Adenosine Receptors D. Regulation of Receptor Expression and …

Motivation has been defined as the process that allows organisms to regulate their internal
and external environment, and control the probability, proximity and availability of stimuli. As …

Adenosine accumulation during ischemia and inflammation protects tissues from injury. In
ischemic tissues adenosine accumulates due to inhibition of adenosine kinase, and in …

Adenosine acts in parallel as a neuromodulator and as a homeostatic modulator in the
central nervous system. Its neuromodulatory role relies on a balanced activation of inhibitory …

The use of animals as models of human physiology is, and has been for many years, an
indispensable tool for understanding the mechanisms of human disease. In Parkinson's …