The jawless fish that were ancestral to all living vertebrates had four spectral cone types that
were probably served by chromatic-opponent retinal circuits. Subsequent evolution of …

Astaxanthin (AX), a lipid-soluble pigment belonging to the xanthophyll carotenoids family,
has recently garnered significant attention due to its unique physical properties, biochemical …

Mammalian photoreceptors aggregate numerous mitochondria, organelles chiefly for energy
production, in the ellipsoid region immediately adjacent to the light-sensitive outer segment …

Raptors have always fascinated mankind, owls for their highly sensitive vision, and eagles
for their high visual acuity. We summarize what is presently known about the eyes as well as …

When vertebrates first conquered the land, they encountered a visual world that was
radically distinct from that of their aquatic ancestors. Fish exploit the strong wavelength …

In infant tree shrews, exposure to narrow-band long-wavelength (red) light, that stimulates
long-wavelength sensitive cones almost exclusively, slows axial elongation and produces …

Highlights•Bird colour vision depends on opsins, retinal mosaic, ocular media and oil
droplets.•Birds use spectral cues for phototaxis, magnetoreception and circadian …

Background The retinae of diurnal vertebrates have characteristics. Most lizards are strictly
diurnal, and their retinal morphology is still unknown. Materials and methods The retina of …

The Avian retina is far less known than that of mammals such as mouse and macaque, and
detailed study is overdue. The chicken (Gallus gallus) has potential as a model, in part …

From the mid-19th century until the 1980's, frogs and toads provided important research
models for many fundamental questions in visual neuroscience. In the present century, they …