Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex, multi-system neurodegenerative disorder. The
second most common neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer's disease, it affects …

Involuntary movements, or dyskinesia, represent a debilitating complication of levodopa (L-
dopa) therapy for Parkinson's disease (PD). L-dopa-induced dyskinesia (LID) are ultimately …

The “basal ganglia” refers to a group of subcortical nuclei responsible primarily for motor
control, as well as other roles such as motor learning, executive functions and behaviors …

Deep brain stimulation (DBS), applying high-frequency electrical stimulation to deep brain
structures, has now provided an effective therapeutic option for treatment of various …

Continuous high-frequency deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a widely used therapy for
advanced Parkinson's disease (PD) management. However, the mechanisms underlying …

Parkinson disease (PD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder that affects as many
as 1–2% of persons aged 60 years and older. With the aging of the population, the …

The motor signs of Parkinson's disease are thought to result in large part from a reduction of
the level of dopamine in the basal ganglia. Over the last few years, many of the functional …

The mesolimbic dopaminergic (ML-DA) system has been recognized for its central role in
motivated behaviors, various types of reward, and, more recently, in cognitive processes …

In patients with Parkinson's disease and in animal models of this disorder, neurons in the
basal ganglia and related regions in thalamus and cortex show changes that can be …

Levodopa-induced motor complications are a common source of disability for patients with
Parkinson's disease. Evidence suggests that motor complications are associated with non …