A complex bidirectional communication system exists between the gastrointestinal tract and
the brain. Initially termed the “gut-brain axis” it is now renamed the “microbiota-gut-brain …

Swallowing movements are produced by a central pattern generator located in the medulla
oblongata. It has been established on the basis of microelectrode recordings that the …

▪ Abstract Brainstem parasympathetic circuits that modulate digestive functions of the
stomach are comprised of afferent vagal fibers, neurons of the nucleus tractus solitarius …

The esophagus consists of 2 different parts. In humans, the cervical esophagus is composed
of striated muscles and the thoracic esophagus is composed of phasic smooth muscles. The …

Eating and drinking generate sequential mechanosensory signals along the digestive tract.
These signals are communicated to the brain for the timely initiation and regulation of …

The phases of swallowing are controlled by central pattern-generating circuitry of the brain
stem and peripheral reflexes. The oral, pharyngeal, and esophageal phases of swallowing …

Autonomic nerves in most mammalian species mediate both contractions and relaxations of
airway smooth muscle. Cholinergic-parasympathetic nerves mediate contractions, whereas …

Vagal efferents, consisting of distinct lower motor and preganglionic parasympathetic fibers,
constitute the motor limb of vagally mediated reflexes. Arising from the nucleus ambiguus …

Several studies have been carried out in the last 30 years in the attempt to clarify the
possible role of glutamate as a neurotransmitter/neuromodulator in the gastrointestinal tract …

The basic organization of an exceptionally complex pattern of axonal projections from one
distinct cell group of the bed nuclei of the stria terminalis, the rhomboid nucleus (BSTrh), was …