Opioids mediate their effects via opioid receptors: mu, delta, and kappa. At the neuronal
level, opioid receptors are generally inhibitory, presynaptically reducing neurotransmitter …

Neuropeptides are found in many mammalian CNS neurons where they play key roles in
modulating neuronal activity. In contrast to amino acid transmitter release at the synapse …

Neuropeptides are ubiquitous in the nervous system. Research into neuropeptides has
been limited by a lack of experimental tools that allow for the precise dissection of their …

Interest in BDNF as an activity-dependent modulator of neuronal structure and function in
the adult brain has intensified in recent years. Localization of BDNF-TrkB to glutamate …

Stress is most often associated with aversive states. It rapidly induces the release of
hormones and neuropeptides including dynorphin, which activates kappa opioid receptors …

Although opioids are highly effective for the treatment of pain, they are also known to be
intensely addictive. There has been a massive research investment in the development of …

The synaptic vesicle cycle at the nerve terminal consists of vesicle exocytosis with neuro-
transmitter release, endocytosis of empty vesicles, and regeneration of fresh vesicles. Of all …

THE receptor–ligand pairs CD28–B7 and CD40–gp39 are essential for the initiation and
amplification of T-cell-dependent immune responses1, 2. CD28–B7 interactions …

The opioid epidemic has led to a serious examination of the use of opioids for the treatment
of pain. Opioid drugs are effective due to the expression of opioid receptors throughout the …

This review covers recent developments in the cellular neurophysiology of retrograde
signaling in the mammalian central nervous system. Normally at a chemical synapse a …