Background: Plastics have conveyed great benefits to humanity and made possible some of
the most significant advances of modern civilization in fields as diverse as medicine …

In oil and gas industry, produced water is considered as the largest waste stream, which
contains relatively higher concentration of hydrocarbons, heavy metals and other pollutants …

Recovery of natural gas and oil from unconventional (shale) reservoirs relies on horizontal
drilling and hydraulic fracturing to make it economical. Hydraulic fracturing generates vast …

The development of hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling techniques has promoted the
exploitation of shale gas resources. However, using water has several potential drawbacks …

Unconventional oil and gas exploration in the United States has experienced a period of
rapid growth, followed by several years of limited production due to falling and low natural …

The management and disposal of flowback and produced waters (FP water) is one of the
greatest challenges associated with unconventional oil and gas development. The …

Emerging interdisciplinary science efforts are providing new understanding of the
interdependence of food, energy, and water (FEW) systems. These science advances, in …

Oilfield produced water (OPW) is one of the most important by-products, resulting from oil
and gas exploration. The water contains a complex mixture of organic and inorganic …

The rapid rise of unconventional oil production during the past decade in the Bakken region
of North Dakota raises concerns related to water contamination associated with the …

There is considerable debate about the sustainability of the hydraulic fracturing (HF) water
cycle in North America. Recently, this debate has expanded to China, where HF activities …