Optogenetic techniques have been developed to allow control over the activity of selected
cells within a highly heterogeneous tissue, using a combination of genetic engineering and …

Modern optogenetics can be tuned to evoke activity that corresponds to naturally occurring
local or global activity in timing, magnitude or individual-cell patterning. This outcome has …

The ability to study cellular physiology using photosensitive, genetically encoded molecules
has profoundly transformed neuroscience. The modern optogenetic toolbox includes …

Dendritic spines are small, thin, specialized protrusions from neuronal dendrites, primarily
localized in the excitatory synapses. Sophisticated imaging techniques revealed that …

Channelrhodopsins (ChRs) are used to optogenetically depolarize neurons. We engineered
a variant of ChR, denoted red-activatable ChR (ReaChR), that is optimally excited with …

Although the hippocampus is known to be important for declarative memory, it is less clear
how hippocampal output regulates motivated behaviours, such as social aggression. Here …

Both observational and perturbational technologies are essential for advancing the
understanding of brain function and dysfunction. But while observational techniques have …

BACKGROUND Channelrhodopsins (ChRs) are naturally occurring light-gated ion channels
that are important for allowing motile algal cells to find suitable light levels. In neuroscience …

Genetically encoded calcium indicators (GECIs) are powerful tools for systems
neuroscience. Here we describe red, single-wavelength GECIs,“RCaMPs,” engineered from …

To sustain neurotransmission, synaptic vesicles and their associated proteins must be
recycled locally at synapses. Synaptic vesicles are thought to be regenerated approximately …