Estrogens and androgens influence the growth and maintenance of the mammalian
skeleton and are responsible for its sexual dimorphism. Estrogen deficiency at menopause …

Mouse models with cell-specific deletion of the estrogen receptor (ER) α, the androgen
receptor (AR) or the receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL), as well as …

Background. Growth hormone (GH) and insulin‐like growth factor (IGF‐1) are fundamental
in skeletal growth during puberty and bone health throughout life. GH increases tissue …

Androgens exert important effects both in androgen-responsive tissues and in the intestinal
tract. To determine the impact of the gut microbiota (GM) on intestinal androgen metabolism …

Sex steroids are chief regulators of gender differences in the skeleton, and male gender is
one of the strongest protective factors against osteoporotic fractures. This advantage in bone …

Chronic inflammation is a prominent feature of aging and of common age‐related diseases,
including atherosclerosis, cancer and periodontitis. This volume examines modifiable risk …

Evidence has been accumulating that, in men, some of the biological actions traditionally
attributed to testosterone acting via the androgen receptor may in fact be dependent on its …

Sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) is the high-affinity binding protein for androgens and
estrogens. According to the free hormone hypothesis, SHBG modulates the bioactivity of sex …

Bone growth requires a specialised, highly angiogenic blood vessel subtype, so-called type
H vessels, which pave the way for osteoblasts surrounding these vessels. At the end of …

Androgens are not only essential for bone development but for the maintenance of bone
mass. Therefore, conditions with androgen deficiency, such as male hypogonadism …