Glutamate (Glu) is the primary excitatory transmitter in the mammalian brain. But, we know
little about the evolutionary history of this adaptation, including the selection of l-glutamate …

Parasitic nematodes (roundworms) and platyhelminths (flatworms) cause debilitating
chronic infections of humans and animals, decimate crop production and are a major …

Neural function depends on maintaining cellular membrane potentials as the basis for
electrical signaling. Yet, in mammals and insects, neuronal and glial membrane potentials …

Pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGICs) are ubiquitous neurotransmitter receptors in
Bilateria, with a small number of known prokaryotic homologues. Here we describe a new …

Most textbook definitions recognize only animals as having nervous systems. However, for
the past couple decades, botanists have been meticulously studying long-distance signaling …

We examine the complex evolution of animal nervous systems and discuss the ramifications
of this complexity for inferring the nature of early animals. Although reconstructing the origins …

Sensory systems sequentially extract increasingly complex features. ON and OFF pathways,
for example, encode increases or decreases of a stimulus from a common input. This …

Nervous systems are among the most spectacular products of evolution. Their provenance
and evolution have been of interest and often the subjects of intense debate since the late …

Figure 1| The effect of GABA on membrane potential in animal and plant cells. Regulation of
membrane potential (Vm) by extracellular GABA, despite different mechanisms in both …

We have updated and reviewed toxicity data for Emamectin benzoate (EMB) and Ivermectin
(IVER), two in-feed drugs used to treat sea lice in farmed Atlantic salmon, and inferred new …