Most vaccines require multiple doses to induce long-lasting protective immunity in a high
frequency of vaccines, and to ensure strong both individual and herd immunity. Repetitive …

Vaccines are essential tools to prevent infection and control transmission of infectious
diseases that threaten public health. Most infectious agents enter their hosts across mucosal …

The emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOCs) threaten the effectiveness of current
COVID-19 vaccines administered intramuscularly and designed to only target the spike …

Aside from centrally induced trained immunity in the bone marrow (BM) and peripheral
blood by parenteral vaccination or infection, evidence indicates that mucosal-resident innate …

Background Heterologous effects of vaccines are mediated by “trained immunity,” whereby
myeloid cells are metabolically and epigenetically reprogrammed, resulting in heightened …

Background Adenovirus-vectored (Ad-vectored) vaccines are typically administered via im
injection to humans and are incapable of inducing respiratory mucosal immunity. However …

Introduction The unique mucosal immune system allows the generation of robust protective
immune responses at the front line of pathogen encounters. The needle-free delivery route …

Tuberculosis (TB), caused by respiratory infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, remains
a major global health threat. The only licensed TB vaccine, the one-hundred-year-old Bacille …

The absence of validated correlates of protection (CoPs) hampers the rational design and
clinical development of new tuberculosis vaccines. In this review, we provide an overview of …

BCG vaccination can strengthen protection against pathogens through the induction of
epigenetic and metabolic reprogramming of innate immune cells, a process called trained …