Background The number of studies addressing per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)
and cancer is increasing. Many communities have had water contaminated by PFAS, and …

When assessing causal effects, determining the target population to which the results are
intended to generalize is a critical decision. Randomized and observational studies each …

Quantifying the effect of a treatment on a clinical outcome—causal inference—requires the
comparison of outcomes under different courses of action. For example, to quantify the effect …

Thrombotic complications occur at high rates in hospitalized patients with COVID‐19, yet the
impact of intensive antithrombotic therapy on mortality is uncertain. We examined in‐hospital …

Triangulation is the practice of obtaining more reliable answers to research questions
through integrating results from several different approaches, where each approach has …

Ideally, questions about comparative effectiveness or safety would be answered using an
appropriately designed and conducted randomized experiment. When we cannot conduct a …

Background: Reduction in cardiovascular death and hospitalization for heart failure (HHF)
was recently reported with the sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor (SGLT-2i) …

Studies that generate real-world evidence on the effects of medical products through
analysis of digital data collected in clinical practice provide key insights for regulators …

Many analyses of observational data are attempts to emulate a target trial. The emulation of
the target trial may fail when researchers deviate from simple principles that guide the …

The increasing availability of large healthcare databases is fueling an intense debate on
whether real-world data should play a role in the assessment of the benefit–risk of medical …