The puzzle of how complex nervous systems emerged remains unsolved. Comparative
studies of neurodevelopment in cnidarians and bilaterians suggest that this process began …

Reverse genetics and next‐generation sequencing unlocked a new era in biology. It is now
possible to identify an animal (s) with the unique biology most relevant to a particular …

Background Planktonic ciliated larvae are characteristic for the life cycle of marine
invertebrates. Their most prominent feature is the apical organ harboring sensory cells and …

Nemerteans (ribbon worms) and phoronids (horseshoe worms) are closely related
lophotrochozoans—a group of animals including leeches, snails and other invertebrates …

The question of whether the ancestral bilaterian had a central nervous system (CNS) or a
diffuse ectodermal nervous system has been hotly debated. Considerable evidence …

The goal of comparative developmental biology is identifying mechanistic differences in
embryonic development between different taxa and how these evolutionary changes have …

Apical organs are relatively simple larval nervous systems. The extent to which apical
organs are evolutionarily related to the more complex nervous systems of other animals …

The origin of the bilaterian head is a fundamental question for the evolution of animal body
plans. The head of bilaterians develops at the anterior end of their primary body axis and is …

The ability to perform muscle contractions is one of the most important and distinctive
features of eumetazoans. As the sister group to bilaterians, cnidarians (sea anemones …

Life-cycle transitions connecting larval and juvenile stages in metazoans are orchestrated by
neuroendocrine signals including neuropeptides and hormones. In marine invertebrate life …