Motivational processes are complex and multifaceted, with both directional and activational
aspects. Behavioral activation and exertion of effort are functions that enable organisms to …

Stimulants such as methylphenidate are increasingly used for cognitive enhancement but
precise mechanisms are unknown. We found that methylphenidate boosts willingness to …

Motivation is characterized by a willingness to overcome both cognitive and physical effort
costs. Impairments in motivation are common in striatal disorders, such as Huntington's …

Recent theoretical models propose that abnormal effort-cost decision-making (ECDM) likely
has divergent underpinnings across mood and psychotic disorders. However, whether this …

Optimal decision making involving reward uncertainty is integral to adaptive goal-directed
behavior. In some instances, these decisions are guided by internal representations of …

Rationale The rat cognitive effort task (rCET), a rodent model of cognitive rather than
physical effort, requires animals to choose between an easy or hard visuospatial …

Background: Individuals must frequently evaluate whether it is worth allocating cognitive
effort for desired outcomes. Motivational deficits are a common feature of psychiatric illness …

Organisms must frequently evaluate the amount of effort to invest in pursuing future rewards.
Despite explicit awareness of the potential benefits of cognitive work, individuals vary in their …

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are drugs of abuse that impair behavior and cognition.
In a rodent model of AAS abuse, testosterone-treated male rats expend more physical effort …

Until recently, the avian brain has remained relatively unexplored by neuroscientists.
However, as reports of evidence of high-order behaviour in birds has increased, the avian …