Many research questions in Earth and environmental sciences are inherently causal,
requiring robust analyses to establish whether and how changes in one variable cause …

Heatwaves constitute a major threat to human health and ecosystems. Projected increases
in heatwave frequency and severity thus lead to the need for prediction to enhance …

The concept of a digital twin of Earth envisages the convergence of Big Earth Data with
physics-based models in an interactive computational framework that enables monitoring …

Physics is a field of science that has traditionally used the scientific method to answer
questions about why natural phenomena occur and to make testable models that explain the …

Causality is a complex concept, which roots its developments across several fields, such as
statistics, economics, epidemiology, computer science, and philosophy. In recent years, the …

The number of network science applications across many different fields has been rapidly
increasing. Surprisingly, the development of theory and domain-specific applications often …

We introduce in this survey the major concepts, models, and algorithms proposed so far to
infer causal relations from observational time series, a task usually referred to as causal …

Understanding why we age is a long-standing question, and many mechanistic theories of
aging have been proposed. Owing to limitations in studying the aging process, including a …

Earth system models (ESMs) are our main tools for quantifying the physical state of the Earth
and predicting how it might change in the future under ongoing anthropogenic forcing. In …

Causal inference in complex systems has been largely promoted by the proposal of some
advanced temporal causation models. However, temporal models have serious limitations …