In recent years, breakthroughs have been made in tumor immunotherapy. However, tumor
immunotherapy, particularly anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint inhibitors, is effective in …

Macrophages infiltrating tumour tissues or residing in the microenvironment of solid tumours
are known as tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs). These specialized immune cells …

The major concept of" oxidative stress" is an excess elevated level of reactive oxygen
species (ROS) which are generated from vigorous metabolism and consumption of oxygen …

It is well established that multifactorial drug resistance hinders successful cancer treatment.
Tumor cell interactions with the tumor microenvironment (TME) are crucial in epithelial …

Macrophages are widely distributed innate immune cells that play indispensable roles in the
innate and adaptive immune response to pathogens and in‐tissue homeostasis …

Dendritic cells (DCs) are essential in immunity owing to their role in activating T cells,
thereby promoting antitumor responses. Tumor cells, however, hijack the immune system …

Transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) is an immunosuppressive cytokine produced by tumour
cells and immune cells that can polarize many components of the immune system. This …

Immunotherapy is resha** cancer treatment paradigms; however, response rates to
immune therapies are low and depend on the host's pre-existing antitumor immunity. The …

RAS and MYC rank amongst the most commonly altered oncogenes in cancer, with RAS
being the most frequently mutated and MYC the most amplified. The cooperative interplay …

The microenvironment of established tumours is often immunosuppressed, and this allows
tumours to grow and disseminate without being eliminated by the patient's immune system …