The natural incentives that shape behavior reach the central circuitry of motivation trans-
synaptically, via the five senses, whereas the laboratory rewards of intracranial stimulation …

Abstract We characterize Openness/Intellect as motivated cognitive flexibility, or cognitive
exploration, and develop a neuropsychological model relating it to dopaminergic function …

Intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) is a behavioral procedure in which operant responding is
maintained by pulses of electrical brain stimulation. In research to study abuse-related drug …

Drug addiction is a brain disorder caused by the repetitive use of various chemicals which
alter normal functioning of the central nervous system with consequent behavioral …

Dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and ventral tegmental area of
the midbrain form the nigrostriatal and mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic pathways that …

Acetylcholine (ACh) has been shown to modulate neuronal differentiation during early
development. Both muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) regulate a …

Central nervous system cholinergic neurons arise from several discrete sources, project to
multiple brain regions, and exert specific effects on reward, learning, and memory. These …

Although the roles of dopaminergic signaling in learning and behavior are well established,
it is not fully understood how the activity of dopaminergic neurons is dynamically regulated …

In this review we report recent findings on the physiological role of the five known muscarinic
acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) as shown by gene targeting technology. Using knockout …

Organophosphates affect mammalian brain development through a variety of mechanisms
beyond their shared property of cholinesterase inhibition. We used microarrays to …