Astrocytes are neural cells of ectodermal, neuroepithelial origin that provide for homeostasis
and defense of the central nervous system (CNS). Astrocytes are highly heterogeneous in …

Optogenetics ushered in a revolution in how neuroscientists interrogate brain function.
Because of technical limitations, the majority of optogenetic studies have used low spatial …

Calcium imaging with protein-based indicators, is widely used to follow neural activity in
intact nervous systems, but current protein sensors report neural activity at timescales much …

Cellular signaling networks are the foundation which determines the fate and function of
cells as they respond to various cues and stimuli. The discovery of fluorescent proteins over …

Genetically encoded fluorescent voltage indicators are ideally suited to reveal the
millisecond-scale interactions among and between targeted cell populations. However …

Content Summary 414 I. Introduction 415 II. Ca2+ importer and exporter in plants 415 III. The
Ca2+ decoding toolkit in plants 415 IV. Mechanisms of Ca2+ signal decoding 417 V …

The electric excitability of muscle, heart, and brain tissue relies on the precise interplay of
Na+-and K+-selective ion channels. The involved ion fluxes are controlled in optogenetic …

Modern optogenetics can be tuned to evoke activity that corresponds to naturally occurring
local or global activity in timing, magnitude or individual-cell patterning. This outcome has …

Intensiometric genetically encoded biosensors, based on allosteric modulation of the
fluorescence of a single fluorescent protein, are powerful tools for enabling imaging of …

Experimental efforts to understand how the brain represents, stores and processes
information require high-fidelity recordings of multiple different forms of neural activity within …