Bacteria and their viruses have coevolved for billions of years. This ancient and still ongoing
arms race has led bacteria to develop a vast antiphage arsenal. The development of high …

Toxin–antitoxin systems are widespread in bacterial genomes. They are usually composed
of two elements: a toxin that inhibits an essential cellular process and an antitoxin that …

The ancient, ongoing coevolutionary battle between bacteria and their viruses,
bacteriophages, has given rise to sophisticated immune systems including restriction …

Bacteria carry diverse genetic systems to defend against viral infection, some of which are
found within prophages where they inhibit competing viruses. Phage satellites pose …

The number and diversity of known CRISPR–Cas systems have substantially increased in
recent years. Here, we provide an updated evolutionary classification of CRISPR–Cas …

CRISPR–Cas interference is mediated by Cas effector nucleases that are either components
of multisubunit complexes—in class 1 CRISPR–Cas systems—or domains of a single …

Clustered regularly interspersed short pallindromic repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR
associated proteins (Cas) system (CRISPR-Cas) came into light as prokaryotic defence …

Bacteria and archaea are frequently attacked by viruses and other mobile genetic elements
and rely on dedicated antiviral defense systems, such as restriction endonucleases and …

Class 2 CRISPR-Cas systems endow microbes with diverse mechanisms for adaptive
immunity. Here, we analyzed prokaryotic genome and metagenome sequences to identify …

In bacteria and archaea, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats
(CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated (Cas) proteins constitute an adaptive immune system …