Remodelling of the immune system with age—immunosenescence—is a substantial
contributor to poor health in older adults, with increasing risk of infections, cancer and …

BACKGROUND The social environment shapes human health, producing strong
relationships between social factors, disease risk, and survival. The strength of these links …

As people live longer, ages at death are becoming more similar. This dual advance over the
last two centuries, a central aim of public health policies, is a major achievement of modern …

Gender refers to the social relationships between males and females in terms of their roles,
behaviours, activities, attributes and opportunities, and which are based on different levels of …

Women in almost all modern populations live longer than men. Research to date provides
evidence for both biological and social factors influencing this gender gap. Conditions when …

Animals exhibit an extraordinary diversity of life history strategies. These realized
combinations of survival, development and reproduction are predicted to be constrained by …

This chapter introduces readers to a basic model and framework with which to understand
how human cultures influence, and are influenced by, psychological processes and …

This article reviews some key strands of demographic research on past trends in human
longevity and explores possible future trends in life expectancy at birth. Demographic data …

Inequality in length of life is the most fundamental of all inequalities; every other type of
inequality is conditional upon being alive. As has long been recognized in studies of …

Biodiversity loss is a major challenge. Over the past century, the average rate of vertebrate
extinction has been about 100-fold higher than the estimated background rate and …